Why go to Russia?
Norka researchers often ask me, "Why did my ancestors go to Russia?" It was indeed a question I asked myself for many years. I was never satisfied with the rote answers in most of the well-known German-Russian history books.
First of all, it is impossible to categorize all German-Russians into a single group. There are different groups of ethnic Germans (e.g., Volga Germans, Black Sea Germans, Mennonites, Baltic Germans). These groups lived under different economic circumstances and left their homelands at different periods for different reasons and under different offerings from the Russian government. Not all German-Russians migrated under the provisions of Catherine the Great's Manifesto. Migration under different programs and other Czars continued to the 1860s.
Similarly, not all Volga Germans came from the same parts of Western Europe. People living in Sweden or France would likely have had different reasons to leave than someone migrating from Saxony, Baden-Württemberg or Hessen-Kassel.
I wanted to understand the specific reasons that prompted those who settled in Norka in 1767. We now know where most of these people had lived before departing for Russia. The vast majority lived in either the county of Isenburg or the principality of Hessen-Kassel. These facts are based upon the Kulberg ship arrival lists made in 1766 and the 1767 census taken in Norka after their arrival.
Let's look at some of the standard reasons for migration and see if the rationale holds up for those who settled in Norka.
1. The impacts of the Thirty Years War. This reason seems improbable given that that war ended in 1648, about 120 years before the colonists began migrating to the lower Volga. Would something that happened 120 years ago cause you to move? I think not.
2. The impacts of the Seven Years War (1756-1763). There is undoubtedly truth to this reason, but it depends on where you were living. If your ancestors lived in Hessen-Kassel, they were directly aligned with Britain and Prussia in the fight with France. Some of the battles were fought in the northern parts of the principality. Many Hessian men were conscripted and served as auxiliaries to the main combatants. Conrad Schreiber, one of my ancestors, was one such example. He served in the Prinz Georg regiment. I can see how he may have come home from the war and told his son, "Wilhelm, you don't ever want to be part of something like this. Get out while you can!"
If your ancestor was from the county of Isenburg, it was a different story. Isenburg was not involved in the Seven Years' War; no battles were in this area. I can't say that there were no impacts, Hessen-Kassel was a neighbor, but the war doesn't seem to have been a major reason for migration from this area. Many people who settled in Norka came from the county of Isenburg.
3. A desire for religious freedom. For some people, this was likely true. Fabian Zubia Schultheis makes a compelling argument that members of Herrnhutter Brüdergemeine (Moravians) began migrating to Russia due to being expelled from Isenburg in 1753. The Moravians founded the Russian colony of Sarepta, which would significantly impact the beliefs of people in Norka, but that would come later.
Based on the fact that most people freely agreed to settle in colonies of the same faith they practiced in their homelands (Reformed, Lutheran, or Catholic), the argument that religious freedom had a significant impact may be an exaggeration.
4. Free land. The Kulberg and 1767 census lists show that many colonists were not farmers in their homelands. There were stone masons, stocking makers, blacksmiths, school teachers, and many other occupations. I mean no offense to farmers, to whom I am continually grateful. Still, I can't imagine all these folks strongly desired to abandon their money-making professions to plow virgin farmland in a remote part of the world. This part of the Manifesto was persuasive for those who wanted land and desired to be farmers, especially combined with freedom from taxation for 10 years.
So what was happening in these areas that would cause people to pick up and travel thousands of miles to a place they knew almost nothing about?
1. Some people were probably drawn to the exclusion from military service offered by Catherine's Manifesto. If you were from Hessen-Kassel, this was a real draw.
2. Catherine's Manifesto implied that craftsmen could set up shop anywhere they chose in Russia. I suspect that many craftsmen saw this as an opportunity and would have liked to settle in the larger cities (St. Petersburg or Moscow) where their services would have ample customers. When they got to Russia, they discovered this was not an option. Kulberg firmly told everyone that they were going to the lower Volga and would become farmers. There was no way back.
3. Lack of opportunity and freedom in a class-based system. In the 1760s, you belonged to a ruler. As a subject, your opportunities and freedoms were minimal. You had no vote when taxes were raised. When the ruler requisitioned grain or your services, you obliged or faced the consequences. You could not move from your village without permission. I can easily imagine many wanted to flee this rigid system to live in the promised self-governing communities. The Russian government ruled from afar but left much of the community management up to the people.
4. Let's be honest; our people were somewhat deceived. Russian and private recruiters (paid by the head) painted the settlement areas as utopias, not mostly barren steppes. At the time, there were no Google Maps with satellite views to check things out beforehand. They didn't know where they were going and believed the promises too much.
First of all, it is impossible to categorize all German-Russians into a single group. There are different groups of ethnic Germans (e.g., Volga Germans, Black Sea Germans, Mennonites, Baltic Germans). These groups lived under different economic circumstances and left their homelands at different periods for different reasons and under different offerings from the Russian government. Not all German-Russians migrated under the provisions of Catherine the Great's Manifesto. Migration under different programs and other Czars continued to the 1860s.
Similarly, not all Volga Germans came from the same parts of Western Europe. People living in Sweden or France would likely have had different reasons to leave than someone migrating from Saxony, Baden-Württemberg or Hessen-Kassel.
I wanted to understand the specific reasons that prompted those who settled in Norka in 1767. We now know where most of these people had lived before departing for Russia. The vast majority lived in either the county of Isenburg or the principality of Hessen-Kassel. These facts are based upon the Kulberg ship arrival lists made in 1766 and the 1767 census taken in Norka after their arrival.
Let's look at some of the standard reasons for migration and see if the rationale holds up for those who settled in Norka.
1. The impacts of the Thirty Years War. This reason seems improbable given that that war ended in 1648, about 120 years before the colonists began migrating to the lower Volga. Would something that happened 120 years ago cause you to move? I think not.
2. The impacts of the Seven Years War (1756-1763). There is undoubtedly truth to this reason, but it depends on where you were living. If your ancestors lived in Hessen-Kassel, they were directly aligned with Britain and Prussia in the fight with France. Some of the battles were fought in the northern parts of the principality. Many Hessian men were conscripted and served as auxiliaries to the main combatants. Conrad Schreiber, one of my ancestors, was one such example. He served in the Prinz Georg regiment. I can see how he may have come home from the war and told his son, "Wilhelm, you don't ever want to be part of something like this. Get out while you can!"
If your ancestor was from the county of Isenburg, it was a different story. Isenburg was not involved in the Seven Years' War; no battles were in this area. I can't say that there were no impacts, Hessen-Kassel was a neighbor, but the war doesn't seem to have been a major reason for migration from this area. Many people who settled in Norka came from the county of Isenburg.
3. A desire for religious freedom. For some people, this was likely true. Fabian Zubia Schultheis makes a compelling argument that members of Herrnhutter Brüdergemeine (Moravians) began migrating to Russia due to being expelled from Isenburg in 1753. The Moravians founded the Russian colony of Sarepta, which would significantly impact the beliefs of people in Norka, but that would come later.
Based on the fact that most people freely agreed to settle in colonies of the same faith they practiced in their homelands (Reformed, Lutheran, or Catholic), the argument that religious freedom had a significant impact may be an exaggeration.
4. Free land. The Kulberg and 1767 census lists show that many colonists were not farmers in their homelands. There were stone masons, stocking makers, blacksmiths, school teachers, and many other occupations. I mean no offense to farmers, to whom I am continually grateful. Still, I can't imagine all these folks strongly desired to abandon their money-making professions to plow virgin farmland in a remote part of the world. This part of the Manifesto was persuasive for those who wanted land and desired to be farmers, especially combined with freedom from taxation for 10 years.
So what was happening in these areas that would cause people to pick up and travel thousands of miles to a place they knew almost nothing about?
1. Some people were probably drawn to the exclusion from military service offered by Catherine's Manifesto. If you were from Hessen-Kassel, this was a real draw.
2. Catherine's Manifesto implied that craftsmen could set up shop anywhere they chose in Russia. I suspect that many craftsmen saw this as an opportunity and would have liked to settle in the larger cities (St. Petersburg or Moscow) where their services would have ample customers. When they got to Russia, they discovered this was not an option. Kulberg firmly told everyone that they were going to the lower Volga and would become farmers. There was no way back.
3. Lack of opportunity and freedom in a class-based system. In the 1760s, you belonged to a ruler. As a subject, your opportunities and freedoms were minimal. You had no vote when taxes were raised. When the ruler requisitioned grain or your services, you obliged or faced the consequences. You could not move from your village without permission. I can easily imagine many wanted to flee this rigid system to live in the promised self-governing communities. The Russian government ruled from afar but left much of the community management up to the people.
4. Let's be honest; our people were somewhat deceived. Russian and private recruiters (paid by the head) painted the settlement areas as utopias, not mostly barren steppes. At the time, there were no Google Maps with satellite views to check things out beforehand. They didn't know where they were going and believed the promises too much.
Sources
Written by Steve Schreiber.
Last updated November 19, 2023